Solution+Chemistry

=**__﻿Solution Chemistry __**=

= =

Editor- Marybeth Nametz
= = =Solution/Acid Base Vocabulary = =__Aqueous Solution:__ Solution in water = =__Boiling Point Elevation:__ Phenomenon that occurs when the boiling point of a solvent is increased when another compound is added causing that solution to have a higher boiling point than the pure solvent. Occurs whenever a non-volatile solute is added to a pure solvent = =__Brownian Movement:__ The random motion of small particles suspended ina gas or liquid = =__Colligative Properties:__ Properties of solutions that depend on the number of molecules in a given volume of solvent and not on the properties of the molecules = =__Colloid:__ A mixture whose particles are intermediate in size between those of a suspension and a solute solution = =__Concentrated Solutions:__ A solution that contains a large amount of solute relative to the amount that could dissolve = =__Concentration:__ The abundance of a constituent divided by the total volume of a mixture = =__Dilute Solutions:__ A solution that has a small amount of solute compared to the amount of solvent = =__Electrolyte:__ Any substance containing free ions that make the substance electrically conductive = =__Emulsion:__ A fine dispersion of minute droplets = =of one liquid in an other in which it is not soluble or miscible = =__Freezing point depression:__ The difference in temperature between the freezing point of a solution and the freezing point of a pure solid = =<span style="color: #008000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">__Henry's law:__ A law formulated by the English chemist William Henry; the amount of a gas that will be absorbed by water increases as the gas pressure increases = =<span style="color: #008000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">__Hydrate:__ A compound that has a specific nubmer of water molecules bound to each formula unit = =<span style="color: #008000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">__Immiscible:__ Describes liquids that are insoluble in one another; oil and water are immiscible = =<span style="color: #008000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">__Molality:__ The concentration of solute in a solution expressed as the nuimber of moles of solute dissolved in 1 liter of solution = =<span style="color: #008000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">__Mole Fraction:__ The ratio of the numbe rof moles of a substance in a mixture or solution to the total number of moles = =<span style="color: #008000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">__Nonelectrolyte:__ A compound that does not conduct an electric current in aqueous solution or in the molten state = =<span style="color: #008000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">__Saturated Solution:__ A solution in which the maximum amount of solvent has been dissolved = =<span style="color: #008000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">__Solubility:__ The amount of a substance that dissolves in a given quantity of solvent at specified conditions of a temperature and pressure to produce a saturated solution = =<span style="color: #008000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">__Solute:__ Dissolved particles in a solution = =<span style="color: #008000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">__Solvation:__ A process that occurs when an ionic solute dissolves; in a solution, the solvent molecules surround the positive and negative ions = =<span style="color: #008000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">__Solvent:__ The liquid in which a solute is dissolved to form a solution = =<span style="color: #008000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">__Strong Electrolyte:__ A solution in which a large portion of the solute exists as ions = =<span style="color: #008000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">__Supersaturated Solution:__ A solution that contains a highter than saturation concentration of solute; slight disturbance or seeding causes crystallizat = =<span style="color: #808000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">ion of excess solute = =<span style="color: #008000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">__Surface Tension:__ The elasticlike force existing in the surface of a body (esp. liquid) tending to minimize the area of the surface = =<span style="color: #008000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">__Surfactant:__ A substance that tends to reduce the surface tension of a liquid in which it is dissolved = =<span style="color: #008000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">__Suspension:__ A heterogenous mixture in which solute-like particles settle out of solvent-like phase some time after their introduction = =<span style="color: #008000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">__Tyndall effect:__ Light scattering by particles in a colloid or particles in a fine suspension = =<span style="color: #008000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">__Unsaturated Solution:__ In physical chemistry, saturation is the point at which a solution of a substance can dissolve no more of that substance and additional amoutns of it will appear as a precipitate = =<span style="color: #008000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">__Weak Electrolyte:__ A material which, when dissolved in water, gives a solution that conducts only a small electrice current = = = = = = = = = =<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Group 1: Water and Its Properties (pgs. 445-449) =

Water in the Liquid State
<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Surface Tension <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Vapor Pressure <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Water in the Solid State
 * <span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">water is a simple triatomic molecule H2O
 * <span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">the oxygen atom forms a covalent bond to hydrogen atoms
 * <span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">oxygen becomes negative
 * <span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">polar molecules are atracted to eachother by dipole interactions, one negative and one positive end connectSu
 * <span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">the inward force that minimizes the surface area of a liquid is surface tension
 * <span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">and substance that interferes with hydrogen bonding between molecules, resulting in surface tension is the surfactant
 * <span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">hydrogen bonding between molecules explains why water has an unusually low water vapor temperature
 * <span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">hydrogen bonds hold water molecules to one another, so the tendency of them to escape is low and it evaporates slowly
 * <span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">water in solid state happens when it reaches a certain temperature (32 F, 0 C)
 * <span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">at 4 C, water no longer behaves like a liquid because the density starts to decrease
 * <span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">the structure of ice is a regular open framework of water molecules arranged like a honeycomb
 * <span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">ice floating is because when it freezes, it is less dense than when liquid so, less dense than liquids is could be in

=<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Group 2: Homogeneous Aqueous Systems (pgs. 450-458) =

<span style="color: #800080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">__Solvents and Solutes__

 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">An aqueous solution is water that contains dissolved substances. ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">A solvent is the dissolving medium. ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">A solute is the dissolved particles. ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">A solvent dissolves the solute. The solute becomes dissolved in the solvent. ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Ionic compounds and plar covalent molecules dissolve best in water. ===

<span style="color: #800080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">__The Solution Process__

 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">As individual solute ions break away from the crystal, the negatively and positively charged ions become surrounded by solvent molecules and the ionic crystal dissolves. ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Solvation is the process by which the positive and negative ions of an ionic solid become surrounded buy solvent molecules. ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Water and oil don't mix. ===

<span style="color: #800080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">__Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes__

 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">An electrolyte uis a compound that conducts an electric current when it is in an aqueous soluition or in the molten state. ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">All ionic compounds are electrolytes because they diccociate into ions. ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">A nonelectrolyte is a compound that doesn't conduct an electric current in either queous solution or the molten state. ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Sodium chloride is a strong electrolyte. ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">A weak electrolyte conducts elecricity poorly because only a fraction of the solute in the solution exists as ions. ===

<span style="color: #800080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">__Hydrates__
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">A compound that contains water of hydration. ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">In writing a formula for a hydrate, use a dot to connect the formula of the compound and the number of water molecules per formula unit. ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Efflorescent Hydrates are anything coated with a white powder, such as baking soda, or sodfium carbonate decahydrate. ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Hygroscopic Hydrates are hydrated salts that have a love vapor pressure. ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Deliquescent Compounds can remove liquid from the air. ===

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">These sodium hydroxide pellets will absorb any liquid in the air and form a solution.
Photo: Emily Taylor Source: []

=<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Group 3: Heterogeneous Aqueous Systems (pgs. 459-463) =

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">__ Suspensions: __

 * ===<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">suspensions are mixtures from which particles settle out upon standing ===
 * ===<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">particles of a suspension are very large and do not stay suspended indefinetly ===
 * ===<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">suspensions are heterogeneous ===

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">__ Colloids: __
[] picture by Marybeth Nametz
 * ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Colloids are heterogeneous mixtures containing particles that differ in size ===
 * ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The particles are spread throughout the dispersion medium ===
 * ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Colloids include gelatin, paint, aerosol sprays and smoke ===
 * ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Colloids have particles smaller than those in suspension and larger than those in solutions ===

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">__ ﻿The Tyndall Effect: __

 * ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The tyndall effect is the scattering of visible light by colloid particles ===

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">__ ﻿Brownian Motion: __

 * ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The chaotic movement of colloidal particles ===

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">__ ﻿Coagulation: __

 * ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Some colloidal particles become positively charged by absorbing positively charged ions ===
 * ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Some colloidal particles become negatively charged by absorbing negatively charged ions ===

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">__ ﻿Emulsions: __

 * ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">A colloidal dispersion of a liquid in a liquid ===

=<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Group 4: Properties of Solutions (pgs. 471-479) =

__ Solution Formation: __

 * ===the compositions of the solvent and the solute determine whether a substance will dissolve===
 * ===stirring, surface area, and temperature determine how fast a substance will be dissolve===

__ Solubility: __

 * ===a **saturated solution** contains the maximum amount of solute for a given amount of solvent at a constant pressure and temperature===
 * ===**solubility**is the amount of solute that dissolves in a given amount of solvent at a standard temperature and pressure===
 * ===it is often expressed in grams of solute per 100g of solvent===
 * ===an **unsaturated solution** contains less solute than a saturated solution at a given temperature and pressure===
 * ===two liquids are **miscible** if they dissolve in each other at all proportions===
 * ===**immiscible** liquids are insoluble in eachother===

__ Factors Affecting Solubility: __

 * === temperature affects the solubility of gas, liquid, and solid solutes in a solvent ===
 * === both temperature and pressure affect the solubility of gaseous solute ===
 * === ﻿a supersaturated solution contains more solute than it can theoretically hold at a given temperature. ===
 * === Changes in temperature usually have a significant effect on the solubility of a solid substance ===
 * === Changes in pressure have little effect on the solubility of solids, but it strongly effects the solubility of gases ===

media type="youtube" key="fZw9bxJg1ac?version=3" height="305" width="569" align="center"

source: [] By Grayce Rose = = = = =<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Group 5: Concentration of Solutions (pgs. 480-485) =

__ Molarity __

 * ===__Concentration__ of a solution is a measure of the amount of solute that is dissolved in a given quantity of solvent.===
 * ===__Dilute Solution:__ a solution that contains a small amount of solute===
 * ===__Concentrated Solution__: a solution that contains a large amount of solute===
 * ===__Molarity:__ (a way to express concentration quantitatively) the number of moles of solute dissolved in one liter of solution===

//Example://

 * ===One saline solution contains .90g NaCl in exactly 100mL of solution. What is the molarity of the solution?===

Knowns:

 * ===solution concentration=.90g NaCl/100mL===
 * ===molar mass NaCl=58.5 g/mol===

Unknown:

 * ===solution concentration=M===

<span style="color: #800080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">**__Making Dilutions__**

 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Diluting a solution reduces the number of moles of solute per unit volume, but the total number of moles of the solute stays the same. ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Moles before the dilution are equal to the moles of solute after the dilution ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Moles of solute = M1 X V1 = M2 X V2. ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">M1 and V1 are the molarity and volume of the initial solution and M2 and V2 are the molarity and volume of the diluted solution. ===

[] by Marybeth Nametz

//<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Example: //

 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">How many milliliters of aqueous 2.00M Mgo4 solution must be diluted with water to prepare 100.0 Ml of aqueous 0.400M MgSo4? ===

__<span style="color: #800080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">**Percent solutions** __

 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The concentration of a solution in a percent ca be expressed: ===
 * 1) ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">as a ratio of the volume of a solute to the volume of the solution ===
 * 2) ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">as a ratio of the mass of a solute to the mass of a solution. ===

//<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Example: //

 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">What is the percent by volume of ethanol in the final solution when 85 mL of ethanol is diluted to a volume of 250 mL with water? ===

__<span style="color: #800080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">**Concentration in percent (mass/mass)** __
= = = = =<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Group 6: Colliative Properties of Solutions (pgs. 487-490) =
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Percent by mass 5(m/m) = mass of solute/mass of solution X 100% ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">When you use percentages to express concentration, be sure to state the units (v/v) or (m/m) ===

__ Vapor-Pressure Lowering __

 * === A colligative property is a prop erty that depends only upon the number of solute particles, and not upon their identity===
 * ===Important collingative properties of solutions:===

3. freezing-point depression

 * ===A volatile solute (i.e., a solute that has a vapor pressure of its own) will contribute to the vapor pressure above a solution in which it is dissolved. The vapor pressure above a solution containing a volatile solute (or solutes) is equal to the sum of the vapor pressures of the solvent and **//each//** of the volatile solutes.===

Picture by Julia McNamara ===__<span style="color: #800080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**Non-Volatile Solutes** __ The figures below illustrate how the vapor pressure of water is affected by the addition of the non-volatile solute, NaCl. Note that: ===
 * there are fewer water molecules in the vapor (i.e., lower vapor pressure) above the NaCl solution than in the vapor above pure water, and
 * there are no sodium ions or chloride ions in the vapor above the NaCl solution.

//Note that the ionic solid, NaCl, produces Na+ ions (blue) and Cl- ions (green) when dissolved in water.// || __ **Volatile Solutes** __ The figures below illustrate how the vapor pressure of liquid xenon is affected by the addition of the volatile solute, liquid krypton. Note that:
 * [[image:http://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/solutions/surface2.gif width="179" height="179" caption="Microscopic view of the surface of liquid water"]] || [[image:http://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/solutions/surface3.gif width="179" height="179" caption="Microscopic view of the surface of an aqueous NaCl solution"]] ||
 * **Pure water** - microscopic view. || **1.0 M NaCl solution** - microscopic view.


 * there are fewer xenon atoms in the vapor (i.e., lower vapor pressure) above the solution than in the vapor above pure liquid xenon, and
 * there are krypton atoms in the vapor above the solution (i.e., both krypton and xenon contribute to the vapor pressure above the solution).


 * [[image:http://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/solutions/surface4.gif width="179" height="179" caption="Microscopic view of the surface of liquid xenon"]] || [[image:http://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/solutions/surface5.gif width="179" height="179" caption="Microscopic view of the surface of a liquid krypton-xenon solution"]] ||
 * **Pure liquid xenon** - microscopic view. || **Krypton-xenon solution** - microscopic view (krypton atoms are shown in blue). ||

__ Freezing-Point Depression __
> ===In simple terms, at 0 C, ice and water are constantly melting and freezing, just in the same amount so there is an equilibrium. If you add salt, the freezing point of the water drops but the melting point of the ice stays the same. So ice still melts but water stops freezing. As the ice melts, it absorbs heat. The interface between the ice and water will cool down first, followed by the rest of the water and ice, until the system reaches the new equilibrium temperature of -20 C (or whatever the freezing point is depressed to depending on the amount of salt added).===
 * ===When a substance freezes, the particles of the soild take on an orderly pattern===
 * ===Freezing point depression is when you adda solute to a liquid causes the freezing point to drop. The most common such system is the ice water bath around an ice cream maker. You start with ice and add salt. Surprisingly, as the ice melts, the temperature of the ice and the water both drop without removing any heat from the system.===
 * ===The magnitude of the freezing-point depression is proportional to the number of sloute particles dissolved in the solvent an does not depend upon their identity.===

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">__ Boiling-Point Elevation __
= = = = =<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Group 7: Colligative Properties and Calculations (pgs. 491-496) =
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid phase equals atmospheric pressure ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The difference in temperature between the boiling point of a solution and the boiling point of a pure solvent is the boiling-point elevation ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Colligative property Depends ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Depends on the concentration of particles, not on their identity ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">[|BOILING POINT ELEVATION] ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The magnitude of the boiling point elevation is proportional to the number of solute particles dissolved in the solvent ===

<span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Brendan Lynch-
= = = = = = = = =<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Group 8: Acid Base Theories (pgs. 587-593) =


 * ===__<span style="color: #800080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Bases and acids help your body function properly __===
 * ===//<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Acids: //===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">give foods a tart/sour taste ex: vinegar, lemons (citric acid) ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">aqueous solutions of acids are electrolytes (electrolytes conduct electricity) ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">acids cause certain dyes, indicators, to change color ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">metals react with aqueous solutions of acids to produce hydrogen gas (zinc & magnesium) ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">they react with compounds containing hydroxide ions to form water and a salt ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**Acids taste sour, change the color of an acid-base indicator, and an be strong or weak electrolytes on an aqueous solution** ===
 * ===//<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Bases: //===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">bitter taste ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">hazardous ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">ex: soap ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">slippery feel ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">aqueous solution of bases are electrolytes and will cause an indicator to change color ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Arrhenius Acids and Bases ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Acids are hydrogen-containing compounds that ionize to yield hydrogen ins in aqueous solution. Bases are compounds that ionize to yield hydroxide ions in aqueous solution. ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">monoprotic- acids that contain one ionizable hydrogen such as nitric acid ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">diprotic acids - acids that contain two ionizable hydrogens such as sulfuric acid ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">triprotic acids - acids that contain three ionizabe hydrogen compounds such as phosphoric acid ===

[[image:http://img.sparknotes.com/figures/A/a3982d6098deabb8378b93b1cfa5eaf7/rxn1.gif width="238" height="79"]]
picture by: alexandra fischbach

__ The Bronsted-Lowry theory defines an acid as a hydrogen-ion donor, and a baseas a hydrogen-ion acceptor __

 * ===Ammonia is a base. It is the hydrogen-ion acceptor and is a Bronsted-Lowry base. Water is the hydrogen-ion donor, and is therefore the aced===
 * ===A conjugate acid is the particle formed when a base gains a hydrogen ion===
 * ===A conjugate base is teh particle that remains when an acid has donated a hydrogen ion===
 * ===A conjuage acid-base pair consists of two substances related by the loss or gain of a single hydrogen ion===
 * ===Gilbert Lewis proposed that an acid accepts a pair of electrons during a reaction, while a base donated a pair of electrons===
 * ===A Lewis acid is a substance that can accept a pair of electrons to form a covalent bond===
 * ===A Lewis base is a substance that can donate a pair of electrons to form a covalent bond===

Photo by Anne O'Toole [] = = = = =<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Group 9: Hydrogen Ions (pgs. 594 -603) =


 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">In an aqueous solution, H+ and OH- are inversely proportional: ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">(1)H+ / (1) OH- = (½) H+ / (2) OH- ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">The equation that represents the formation of water molecules: ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">H+ +OH- àH20 ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">H+ ion concentrations x OH- concentrations= 1.00x10 -14 ===


 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">Ion production is constant for water: ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">Kw= H+ x OH- =1.00x10 -14 ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">If the H+ ion concentration is greater than the OH- concentrations then the solution is acidic ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">If the OH- concentration is greater than the H+ ion concentration then the solution is basic ===

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">__ The pH is the concentration of H+ ions in a solution __

 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">pH= -log[H+] ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">The pH range is from 0-14 ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">0 is very acidic 14 is very basic ===

by Marybeth Nametz

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">__ pOH (concentration of hydroxide ions) = -log [OH-] __

 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">pH=14- ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">pOH=14-pH ===

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">__ You can find pH by: __

 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">kw=OH- x H+ = 1 x 10 14th ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Kw = OH x H+ ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">H+ =KW/OH = 10 14th ===

= = [] photo by Marybeth Nametz = = = = =<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Group 10: Strengths of Acids and Bases (pgs. 605-611) =
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">An indicator can be used to determine the pH of something by changing color ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The color change helps give a rough estimate of pH ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">A pH meter makes rapid accurate measurements ===

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">__ Stong acids and weak acids are different because strong acids completly ionize in an aqeuous solution while weak ions only ionize slightly __

 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">The acid dissociation constant measures how strong or weak an acid is based on how completly it will dissociate in water ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">The acid dissociation constant or Ka measures the dissociated form of an acid to its undissociated form ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">As an acid gets stronger its Ka increases and decreases when the Ka goes down ===

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">__ Just like strong and weak acids, there are strong and weak bases __

 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Again the stronger the base the more it dissociates in an aqeuous solution ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">The base dissociation constant Kb is a ratio which compares the concentration of the acid times the concentation of the hydroxide acid to the base ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Concentrated/strong solutions dissociate more in water then weak/diluted solutions ===

Video: [] By:Colleen Fitzgerald

= = = =

<span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Kim Kogut- "Calculation Dissociation Constants"
===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 1.1em;">__ To find the Ka of a weak acid or the Kb of a weak base, substitute the measured concentrations of all the substances present at equilibrium into the expressions for Ka or Kb. __ ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Ka stands for acid dissociation constant and Kb stands for base dissociation constant. ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">For a weak acid, you can determine these constants if you know the initial molar concentration and the pH of the solution. ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">The formula used for finding the Ka or Kb of a substance is ===

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 1.1em;">__ An example... __

 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">A 0.1000M solution of ethanoic acid is only partially ionized. From measurements of the pH of the solution, [H+] is determined to be 1.34 x 10 -3M. What is the acid dissociation constant (Ka) of ethanoic acid? ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**Knowns:** ===

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;">**Ka = (1.34 x 10 -3) x (1.34 x 10 -3) / 0.0987**
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;">**Substitue:**

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">__**= 1.82 x 10 -5**__
=<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Group 11: Neutralization Reactions (pgs. 612- 616) =

__<span style="color: #800080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">ACID-BASE REACTIONS __

 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Strong acids react with a strong base ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Substances mixed in the same mole ratios specified by the balanced equation produce neutral solutions ===

===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**Neutralzation Reactions:** reactions in which an acid and a base react in an aqueous soultionto produce a salt and water ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">These reactions are one way to prepare pure samples of salts ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**The reaction of an acid with a base produce water and one of a class of compounds called salts** ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Salts are compounds consisting of an anion from an acid and a cation from a base ===

__ TITRATION __

 * ===Acids and bases sometimes, but not always, react in a 1:1 mole ratio===

**Equivalence Point:** Happens when acids and bases are mixed and the number of moles of hydrogen ions equals the number of moles of hydoxide ions
CALCULATING TITRATION: [] Mark Cuddy

<span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Abby John- pgs. 614-616
= = = = = = = = =<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Group 12: Salts in Solutions (pgs. 618-622) =

__<span style="color: #800080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Salt Hydrolysis: __
Shannon Degnan
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">solutions of salt can be acidic, neutral, or basic ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">solutions of sodium chloride are neutral ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">ammonium chloride are acidic ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">in a pH titration the //equivalence point// is 7 (neutral) ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">in salt hydrolysis the cations and anions remove hydrogen ions to water ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">when salts produce acidic solutions, they contain positive ions that release protons into water ===

<span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Lauren Bedard- pgs. 620-622
=-Ions in water have to do with the hydrolsis of the cations= = = = = = = = = = = = =